㈠ 急求10个左右关于外汇方面的参考文献
参考什么?参考你也赢不了
㈡ 求关于经济方面的英文文献以及翻译成中文
dsa
㈢ 魏强斌翻译的外汇交易进阶哪里有干净的PDF版本
我这里有魏强斌的全套pdf书籍，私信我
㈣ 求帮助，翻译一篇期货套期保值方面的英文文献，万分感谢。。
在期货市场的关注已经支付的期货合约的套期保值有效性的研究，因为它是在解释期货合约成功的重要因素[约翰斯顿，塔什吉安和麦康奈尔（1989）]。谁提出的这项措施的有效性，包括作家张方（1990），Ederington（1979年），耶尔德（1987），欣，郭，
和李（1994年），拉塞尔（1987年）和纳尔逊和Collins（1985）。这些措施都试图确定在何种程度上对冲可以减少现金使用期货合约的价格风险。在这些避险效益研究是指对投资组合的回报。特别是期货合同可以有不同的价值观方面的套期保值效果，这取决于措施的使用和避险工具的功能。期货合约，他们自己，引入hedgers.Therefore风险，
在何种程度上提供了一个期货合约的整体风险降低，是为futuresexchange管理的重要标准，以评估避险绩效。其实，较小的基础和期货合约，更大的风险降低市场深度的风险。对于一个对冲工具对另一选择是同时考虑后作出的风险和[Castelino，弗朗西斯替代对冲成本，沃尔夫（1991）]。本文介绍了套期保值的效率和效益的这一措施，表明了一个期货合约（包括风险和套期保值的成本提供避险服务质量的新概念）。建议的措施是延伸和补充措施的程度，并且有不同的目的，不同的解释，和不同的目标群体。
它评估从期货交易所管理的角度期货合约。期货市场是假定为实现为客户创造卓越的价值[Narver和Slater（1990）]易感，从而产生高交易量[黑色（1986）]。本文的目的是提供了一个措施，是能够给到外汇期货交易管理绩效的洞察力。拟议的套期保值效率的措施的评价，与实际避险和距离完美hedge.This距离可以成为一个系统的一部分，它可以由期货交易所管理，并随机分成部分，
这超越了其control.Hence是，这项措施是为期货交易所管理的有用工具，因为它使实际对冲质量进行评估。
应该是这样吧
㈤ 经济类论文《外汇管理与经济发展的关系研究》英文文献及翻译
你的难度有些大 需要把5000字左右的英文论文并要求翻译成中文 不过你可以去论文俱乐部看看
㈥ 急求：经济类3000字左右英文文献（带翻译更好）！~~
INTO THE STORM
FOR much of the past year the fast-growing economies of the emerging world watched the Western financial hurricane from afar. Their own banks held few of the mortgage-based assets that undid the rich world’s financial firms. Commodity exporters were thriving, thanks to high prices for raw materials. China’s economic juggernaut powered on. And, from Budapest to Brasília, an abundance of credit fuelled domestic demand. Even as talk mounted of the rich world suffering its worst financial collapse since the Depression, emerging economies seemed a long way from the centre of the storm.
过去一年的大部分时间里，高速发展的新兴国家一直在远处观望着西方国家的金融风暴。他们的银行仅持有少量抵押资产，而类似的资产已经破坏了发达国家的金融公司。商品出口商因为原材料的高价格而日渐富有。中国不可抗拒的经济力量已然开启，而且信贷刺激的内需从布达佩斯到巴西利亚都表现得非常充足。尽管大萧条后关于西方国家受难于金融崩塌的话题与日俱增，但新兴国家似乎距离金融风暴的中心还有一段距离。
No longer. As foreign capital has fled and confidence evaporated, the emerging world’s stockmarkets have plunged (in some cases losing half their value) and currencies tumbled. The seizure in the credit market caused havoc, as foreign banks abruptly stopped lending and stepped back from even the most basic banking services, including trade credits.
不过目前的情况不再是那样了，随着境外资本的流失和经济信心的消失，新兴国家股市暴跌（有些地区已经腰斩），本币迅速贬值。由于外国银行突然中断贷款，并且收缩了包括贸易信贷在内的基础银行服务，新兴国家的信贷市场突发混乱，并引发了一场浩劫。
Like their rich-world counterparts, governments are battling to limit the damage (see article). That is easiest for those with large foreign-exchange reserves. Russia is spending $220 billion to shore up its financial services instry. South Korea has guaranteed $100 billion of its banks’ debt. Less well-endowed countries are asking for help. Hungary has secured a EURO5 billion ($6.6 billion) lifeline from the European Central Bank and is negotiating a loan from the IMF, as is Ukraine. Close to a dozen countries are talking to the fund about financial help.
新兴国家的政府和发达国家的政府一样都在为控制损失程度而奋斗。不过对于外汇储备充足的国家来说难度会小一些：俄罗斯斥资2200亿美元重振金融服务行业；韩国政府担保了1000亿美元的银行债务。而那些储备并不充足的国家正在四处求援：匈牙利成功向欧洲央行求得了50亿欧元（约66亿美元）的生命线，同时也在同国际货币基金组织协商借款事宜，同时向国际货币基金组织求援的还有乌克兰。近一打儿的国家在向基金组织求助。
Those with long-standing problems are being driven to desperate measures. Argentina is nationalising its private pension funds, seemingly to stave off default (see article). But even stalwarts are looking weaker. Figures released this week showed that China’s growth slowed to 9% in the year to the third quarter-still a rapid pace but a lot slower than the double-digit rates of recent years.
有持续问题的国家正棋行险招：阿根廷正在将私人养老金国有化，意图阻止违约的发生。即使强有力的国家也表现出虚弱一面：本周公布的数字表明今年中国的增长率在第三季度减缓为9%，虽然增速还算快，但是与近些年的两位数增率相比缓慢了不少。
Blowing cold on credit
对信贷没兴趣
The various emerging economies are in different states of readiness, but the cumulative impact of all this will be enormous. Most obviously, how these countries fare will determine whether the world economy faces a mild recession or something nastier. Emerging economies accounted for around three-quarters of global growth over the past 18 months. But their economic fate will also have political consequences.
众多新兴经济的意愿并不相同，但是累计在一起的影响力却非同一般。最明显的就是这些国家的表现将会决定世界经济所面临的是一个较为缓和的衰退还是更可怕的情况。在过去18个月的全球经济增长中，新兴经济贡献了75%。但是他们的经济命运也会有一些政治后果。
In many places-eastern Europe is one example (see article)-financial turmoil is hitting weak governments. But even strong regimes could suffer. Some experts think that China needs growth of 7% a year to contain social unrest. More generally, the coming strife will shape the debate about the integration of the world economy. Unlike many previous emerging-market crises, today’s mess spread from the rich world, largely thanks to increasingly integrated capital markets. If emerging economies collapse-either into a currency crisis or a sharp recession-there will be yet more questioning of the wisdom of globalised finance.
在类似东欧的很多地区，金融混乱目前的打击目标是软弱的政府；但强硬的政权同样会尝到苦果。一些专家认为中国每年需要7%的增长率来阻止社会动荡的发生。总体来说，如此争端必将影响全球经济一体化的讨论。与以往数次新兴经济危机不同，这次的混乱始于发达国家，很大程度上要归咎于一体化的资本市场。一旦新兴经济崩溃，无论是货币危机还是剧烈的经济萧条，大家对于金融全球化是否属明智之举会有更多的质疑。
Fortunately, the picture is not universally dire. All emerging economies will slow. Some will surely face deep recessions. But many are facing the present danger in stronger shape than ever before, armed with large reserves, flexible currencies and strong budgets. Good policy-both at home and in the rich world-can yet avoid a catastrophe.
幸运的是上述恐怖的场景没有发生在全球的每个角落：所有的新兴经济都会减缓发展速度，有一些也必将面临深度萧条；但是更多的国家在面临当下危机的时候却拥有比以往任何时候都强壮的形式，用充足的储备、弹性的货币和强大的预算武装自己。新兴国家及发达国家良好的政策可以避免大灾难的发生。
One reason for hope is that the direct economic fallout from the rich world’s disaster is manageable. Falling demand in America and Europe hurts exports, particularly in Asia and Mexico. Commodity prices have fallen: oil is down nearly 60% from its peak and many crops and metals have done worse. That has a mixed effect. Although it hurts commodity-exporters from Russia to South America, it helps commodity importers in Asia and reces inflation fears everywhere. Countries like Venezuela that have been run badly are vulnerable (see article), but given the scale of the past boom, the commodity bust so far seems unlikely to cause widespread crises.
至少有一个原因值得抱有希望：发达国家此次灾难的直接经济影响还是在可控的范围内。欧美锐减的需求对出口来说无疑是一个打击，特别是对亚洲和墨西哥。商品价格走低：原油价格与巅峰时期比较已经下降了60%，很多粮食和金属类商品跌幅更大。这两个现象有混合效果：尽管从俄罗斯到南美的商品（能源）出口企业备受打击，但却帮助了亚洲的商品（能源）进口商，并且缓和了各地对通胀的恐惧。委内瑞拉的情形一直很糟糕，也很脆弱；不过由于过去极度的繁荣，商品价格下跌目前还不会引发大范围传播的危机。
The more dangerous shock is financial. Wealth is being squeezed as asset prices decline. China’s house prices, for instance, have started falling (see article). This will dampen domestic confidence, even though consumers are much less indebted than they are in the rich world. Elsewhere, the sudden dearth of foreign-bank lending and the flight of hedge funds and other investors from bond markets has slammed the brakes on credit growth. And just as booming credit once underpinned strong domestic spending, so tighter credit will mean slower growth.
比商品价格更令人震惊的事情发生在金融领域。由于资产价格的下降，财富水平正在被挤压缩水。以中国房价为例，目前已经开始下跌。尽管新兴国家的消费者比发达国家的负债水平低很多，上述情况还是会挫伤国内的经济信心。在其他方面，国外银行借款骤然匮乏、对冲基金以及其他投资者逃离债券市场，这些因素给信贷增长踩了一脚急刹车。正如发达的信贷曾经强力支撑国内支出那样，信贷紧缩将意味着增长放缓。
Again, the impact will differ by country. Thanks to huge current-account surpluses in China and the oil-exporters in the Gulf, emerging economies as a group still send capital to the rich world. But over 80 have deficits of more than 5% of GDP. Most of these are poor countries that live off foreign aid; but some larger ones rely on private capital. For the likes of Turkey and South Africa a sudden slowing in foreign financing would force a dramatic adjustment. A particular worry is eastern Europe, where many countries have double-digit deficits. In addition, even some countries with surpluses, such as Russia, have banks that have grown accustomed to easy foreign lending because of the integration of global finance. The rich world’s bank l-outs may limit the squeeze, but the flow of capital to the emerging world will slow. The Institute of International Finance, a bankers’ group, expects a 30% decline in net flows of private capital from last year.
需要再次重申的是，冲击的表现会因国家的不同而有所区别。多亏中国和海湾产油国经常项目下的巨额顺差，新型经济整体还不断的向发达国家输送资本。但是80 多个国家的财政赤字已经超过GDP的5%，其中的多数是那些依靠国外救助过活得贫困国家；不过也有一些依靠私人资本的大国。对于类似土耳其和南非的国家来说，突然减缓的境外融资迫使其进行大幅调整。东欧的情况特别令人担忧，那里的不少国家赤字水平已经达到了两位数。另外，象俄罗斯这样处于顺差的国家，其银行也逐渐适应了可以轻易从外国取得的贷款，原因自然是全球金融一体化。发达国家的救助计划也许可以限制财富被挤压的水平，但资本流向新兴世界的速度无疑会减慢。国际金融研协会预测私人资本的净流量比去年回减少30%。
A wing and a prayer
飞行之翼与祈祷者
This credit crunch will be grim, but most emerging markets can avoid catastrophe. The biggest ones are in relatively good shape. The more vulnerable ones can (and should) be helped.
信贷紧缩必将令人生畏，不过多数新兴市场可以躲过一劫，最大的市场形势还相当不错。比较脆弱的市场可以（也应该）得到帮助。
Among the giants, China is in a league of its own, with a $2 trillion arsenal of reserves, a current-account surplus, little connection to foreign banks and a budget surplus that offers lots of room to boost spending. Since the country’s leaders have made clear that they will do whatever it takes to cushion growth, China’s economy is likely to slow-perhaps to 8%-but not collapse. Although that is not enough to save the world economy, such growth in China would put a floor under commodity prices and help other countries in the emerging world.
在那些坚强的巨人中，中国卓然不群：手握2万亿美元的储备，经常项下的顺差状态，与国外银行罕有关联，过剩的预算给推动支出留有足够空间。鉴于国家领导人已经明确表示将不惜一切代价为经济增长减速缓冲，中国的经济增长应该会减缓到大约8%的水平，但是决不会崩溃。虽然这不足以挽救世界经济，但是该增长率将会为商品价格建底并帮到新兴世界的其他国家。
The other large economies will be harder hit, but should be able to weather the storm. India has a big budget deficit and many Brazilian firms have a large foreign-currency exposure. But Brazil’s economy is diversified and both countries have plenty of reserves to smooth the shift to slower growth. With $550 billion of reserves, Russia ought to be able to stop a run on the rouble. In the short-term at least, the most vulnerable countries are all smaller ones.
其他的经济大国会受到更大的冲击，不过应该可以禁受住风暴侵袭。印度的财政赤字巨大，巴西很多公司面临巨大的外汇风险。但巴西经济已经实现多样化，同时上述两个国家拥有充足的储备来平稳过渡到缓慢的增长。俄罗斯掌握着5500亿美元的储备，应该能够阻止对卢布的抢购。至少在短期内，小国家才是最弱不禁风的。
There will be pain as tighter credit forces adjustments. But sensible, speedy international assistance would make a big difference. Several emerging countries have asked America’s Federal Reserve for liquidity support; some hope that China will l them out. A better route is surely the IMF, which has huge expertise and some $250 billion to lend. Sadly, borrowing from the fund carries a stigma. That needs to change. The IMF should develop quicker, more flexible financial instruments and minimise the conditions it attaches to loans. Over the past month deft policymaking saw off calamity in the rich world. Now it is time for something similar in the emerging world.
受到紧缩信贷压力进行的调整必然带来痛苦，但快速的国际援助是明智之举，因为这会让结果很不相同。一些新兴国家已经向美联储求援以缓解流动性问题；有一些则希望中国可以拯救他们与水火。更佳的求救路线莫过于国际货币基金组织，因为它掌握大量的专门知识和2500亿美元的可出借款项。不幸的是人们认为向基金借款有辱其名，国际货币基金组织应该推出更快捷、更灵活的金融工具，同时实现借贷条件最小化。过去数月中，机敏的决策驱散了发达国家的灾难。现在也正是新兴世界发生类似事情的时候了。
补充：economics上的文章
㈦ 高分求翻译(关于人民币升值原因分析),翻译好有追加分
好长啊`
RMB revaluation pressure from the three main aspects : the first is from the national foreign exchange transactions between the market pressure; followed by the governments to protect their own interests of the game, that is political pressure; Finally, there is pressure on the policy. China's exchange rate from the present system of international environment, the market pressure weakened but did not disappear, political pressure graally weakening, policy of pressure in the exchange rate system will become the main pressure also needs further observation. (1) Economic Analysis terms of economics, probably mainly in the following aspects of it : First, the RMB exchange rate since 1994, almost 10 years without adjustment, This 10 and the strength of China's economy has undergone profound changes. Secondly, since the 1990s, some authoritative international organizations and trade partners that the yuan has been varying degrees undervalued. Third, according to the theory of international economics, foreign exchange savings too many shows in itself that the excessively high price of foreign currency, the Renminbi is undervalued, a revaluation of the local currency pressure. Fourth, since 2001, the world's major currencies, including the currencies of Southeast Asian countries have to appreciate substantially, Only the yuan exchange rate against the dollar has not adjusted, that is, in fact yuan dollar against other currencies depreciated sharply. Not to mention the 1990s yuan devaluation is not excessive or too low pricing, say that in recent years other countries have currencies against the dollar appreciate substantially, only the yuan exchange rate against the dollar did not move. only this one, we can judge the renminbi against the dollar value may be underestimated. (2) analysis of international political and the RMB exchange rate issue is not just an economic issue, as well as international political issues. Some scholars point out that some Western countries frequently called for the revaluation of the RMB, other reasons behind. Some out of jealousy, some to divert domestic accusation of the government, it is to strive for domestic manufacturing of the vote. If Western countries simply be the value of the renminbi level with the national recession in the manufacturing sector linked to the attempted to force the revaluation of the RMB. Create job opportunities in the United States to rece the factors is not China but the global competition of the invisible hand. The foreign clamor reasons for the appreciation of the yuan confined to the following points : First, the RMB exchange rate is too low. It was proposed that it should be fixed at one U.S. dollars to 4.2 billion yuan level. Second, China's foreign exchange reserves are too high, since China's accession to the WTO, there is no surge in imports, the trade surplus has increased substantially. Three of cheap Chinese goods exported cause world deflation. It was believed that in recent years, large quantities of cheap Chinese goods exported to Japan and Europe and the United States, deflation China should make the RMB appreciation in the world economy bear corresponding responsibility. The reason why the United States put pressure on the renminbi to appreciate is that China's policy of "pegging the dollar" policy, depreciation of the dollar so that its positive effects can not brought into full play only "greatly enhanced Chinese enterprises in the export competitiveness, stimulated the export of Chinese procts, "especially in the 2002 devaluation of the dollar, The United States has a record trade deficit of 435.2 billion U.S. dollars to the historical record, trade deficit with China reached 103.1 billion U.S. dollars. In fact the United States trade deficit soaring reason does not lie in China's RMB exchange rate policy, but the United States readjustment of the instrial structure, expanding foreign direct investment, personal consumption expenditure growth and the devaluation of the dollar J-curve effect of multiple factors such as the role of the results. In recent years, China's growing economic friction, but also more confined to the micro-economic friction. After joining the WTO, China is at a stage of adjusting systems, institutional factors in China's economic development is increasingly a concern. United States, Japan and European countries put pressure on the appreciation of the RMB, the system makes economic friction in China's external economic frictions began to increase the share. RMB appreciation is the real purpose? Central government has made the decision, not because a particular reason, Unless the causes of the pressure to allow the government can not avoid or stop. I think there are three reasons : first : to resolve all the various funds and the appreciation of the renminbi expectations and pressure; 2nd : pegging to the dollar is graally emerging from the model of hard currency into yuan preparation; Third : to take this opportunity to narrowing Hong Kong dollars and renminbi exchange rate differential, achieving 1:1, and then at the appropriate time, the yuan, A Hong Kong dollars and will be integrated to form a single currency.
㈧ 各位有哪些关于外汇储备的参考文献！！
三、对实证结果的分析
从我国货币供给机制来看，目前我国基础货币的投放主要通过4条渠道：一是对金融机构的再贴现和再贷款；二是外汇占款；三是对财政贷款或透支；四是央行的直接贷款。我国近年来连续呈现国际收支顺差，外汇储备规模不断增加，使外汇占款逐渐成为基础货币投放的主要渠道，这一点可从1995年汇率改革以后我国外汇占款占基础货币的比重可以看出，如表4所示。
我国外汇储备一直处于较快的增长状态，究其原因，一方面，这和我国企业的结售汇制度有密切关系。根据我国结售汇制度规定，企业超过限额的外汇收入必须在45天内进行结汇，而用汇时须从银行购买。对于外汇指定的银行也只能持有额定的外汇，多余或不足的部分通过银行间外汇市场买卖，最终必须归结于人民银行。所以外汇市场并没有体现真正的需求关系，而是由人民银行以人民币完全吸收外汇市场上的差额，这正是导致我国外汇储备高速膨胀的重要原因；另一方面，我国经常项目收支和资本项目收支的持续双顺差，使得外汇市场上外汇供给大于需求，人民币面临巨大的升值压力，这使得民间的外汇储蓄颇为动荡。在2005年7月21日我国宣布汇率制度改革之后，人民币的小幅升值更是引起了民间外汇储蓄和存款的大量兑换，为了维持人民币汇率的稳定，推进汇率制度的平稳改革，人民银行只能买进剩余的外汇，抛出相应的人民币，从而导致基础货币的进一步扩展。
外汇储备的增加必然带来外汇占款的增加，不断增加的外汇占款形成了基础货币的内生性增长，央行被迫投放基础货币。如果此时人民银行不采取冲销的政策，并且在国内信贷不变的情况下，基础货币的增加，通过货币乘数效应的作用，国内货币供应量将会增加。公众手中持有的货币量将大于他们对货币需求的量，如果超额的货币供给冲向商品市场，商品的需求将会增加，进而推动物价水平上升。但是事实上，我国外汇储备近年来持续、大幅增长，物价却没有出现暴涨，究其原因主要有：
(1)我国正处于计划经济向市场经济转轨的过程中，经济活动不可避免地带有计划经济色彩，外汇储备和国内信贷规模都是影响基础货币供应量的因素。中央银行可以通过一手抓外汇储备、一手抓本币来调控国内的基础货币。在我国还是有管理浮动汇率的情况下，我国外汇储备增加能否对国内通货膨胀形成现实压力，还取决于中央银行实行的国内信贷政策。当国内经济有通胀的苗头，央行就收紧信贷，因此，外汇储备对通货膨胀的影响被有意无意地弱化。
(2)外汇储备的增加不一定导致外汇占款的增加。除国际收支顺差外，外汇储备的增加还有另外两个渠道：来自国际金融机构、外国政府借款和储备的收益。向国际金融机构或外国政府借入的外汇增加的储备并不增加外汇占款，也不增加基础货币。来自储备收益的外汇储备增加同样也不增加外汇占款，进而不增加基础货币投放。在我国的外汇储备增量中，外汇储备收益部分比重不高，但是，这种渠道的存在，也在一定程度上削弱了外汇储备增加对通货膨胀的影响。
(3)中央银行可以通过干预基础货币和货币乘数减弱外汇占款对货币投放的影响。中央银行调整基础货币结构是通过调整其资产业务投放基础货币的，在外汇储备增加的同时，央行通过减少对金融机构、政府及非金融机构的债权来抵消外汇储备增长对货币投放的压力，通过发行中央银行票据等方式回笼货币。也可以通过影响货币乘数影响货币供给，比如中央银行可以通过调整法定存款准备金影响货币乘数进而影响货币供给。由于我国利率还没有实现完全意义上的市场化，资本项目还没有完全开放，因而利率与资本项目之间的传导机制受阻，这在一定程度上也减弱外汇储备增加对通货膨胀的影响。
总之，外汇储备的变动会影响我国的物价水平的变动，两者之间呈现正相关关系。从实证分析结果看到，作用系数只有0.023896。但是，外汇储备对物价指数的影响不可忽视。这是由于我国外汇储备的变动幅度非常大，从2001年1月的1561亿美元增长到 2006年6月的9411.15亿美元，增长了5倍多，而同期国内信贷和GDP仅增长一倍多。随着我国经济体制改革的深入，经济体制的市场化改革也疏通了外汇储备通过影响货币供应量进而影响物价的渠道。因而，外汇储备对通货膨胀指标的影响也会日益显现出来。
参考文献
[1]刘荣茂，黎开颜.我国外汇储备对通货膨胀影响的实证分析[J].北京：中国农业大学学报，2005，(1).
[2]封建强，袁林.我国外汇储备增长与物价波动研究[J].北京：经济科学，2000，(6).
[3]戴根有.我国的外汇储备与通货膨胀[J].北京：战略与管理，1995，(5).
[4]闫先东，冯克然.通货膨胀——国际收支角度的考察[J].北京：财贸经济，1997，(4).
[5]谢平，张晓朴.货币政策与汇率政策的三次冲突：1994—2000年中国的实证分析[J].北京：国际经济评论，2002，(3).
[6]邵学言，郝雁.对中国外汇储备与物价指数之间数量关系的研究——基于货币供求角度的实证分析[J].北京：经济学动态， 2004，(6).
㈨ 我需要一篇外文文献及翻译！关于企业财务风险防范的内容！要求字数达标、有外国作者的名字和出处。
一共两篇 ，希望对楼主有用
什么是财务风险
财务风险是企业在财务管理过程中必须面对的一个现实问题，财务风险是客观存在的，企业管理者对财务风险只有采取有效措施来降低风险，而不可能完全消除风险。文章通过对企业财务风险类型分析，从中找出不同财务风险产生的具体原因，并试图探索出解决各类财务风险的有效方法。
当今世界上因财务风险而倒闭破产的公司，甚至是特大公司也不为少见，如2002年世界500强的安然就是一例。因此，忽视财务风险将给我们带来的后果是严重的。
财务风险的定义和基本类型
财务风险是指企业在各项财务活动中由于各种难以预料和无法控制的因素，使企业在一定时期、一定范围内所获取的最终财务成果与预期的经营目标发生偏差，从而形成的使企业蒙受经济损失或更大收益的可能性。企业的财务活动贯穿于生产经营的整个过程中，筹措资金、长短期投资、分配利润等都可能产生风险。
根据风险的来源可以将财务风险划分为：
1.筹资风险
筹资风险指的是由于资金供需市场、宏观经济环境的变化，企业筹集资金给财务成果带来的不确定性。筹资风险主要包括利率风险、再融资风险、财务杠杆效应、汇率风险、购买力风险等。利率风险是指由于金融市场金融资产的波动而导致筹资成本的变动；再融资风险是指由于金融市场上金融工具品种、融资方式的变动，导致企业再次融资产生不确定性，或企业本身筹资结构的不合理导致再融资产生困难；财务杠杆效应是指由于企业使用杠杆融资给利益相关者的利益带来不确定性；汇率风险是指由于汇率变动引起的企业外汇业务成果的不确定性；购买力风险是指由于币值的变动给筹资带来的影响。
2.投资风险
投资风险指企业投入一定资金后，因市场需求变化而影响最终收益与预期收益偏离的风险。企业对外投资主要有直接投资和证券投资两种形式。在我国，根据公司法的规定，股东拥有企业股权的25%以上应该视为直接投资。证券投资主要有股票投资和债券投资两种形式。股票投资是风险共担，利益共享的投资形式；债券投资与被投资企业的财务活动没有直接关系，只是定期收取固定的利息，所面临的是被投资者无力偿还债务的风险。投资风险主要包括利率风险、再投资风险、汇率风险、通货膨胀风险、金融衍生工具风险、道德风险、违约风险等。
3.经营风险
经营风险又称营业风险，是指在企业的生产经营过程中，供、产、销各个环节不确定性因素的影响所导致企业资金运动的迟滞，产生企业价值的变动。经营风险主要包括采购风险、生产风险、存货变现风险、应收账款变现风险等。采购风险是指由于原材料市场供应商的变动而产生的供应不足的可能，以及由于信用条件与付款方式的变动而导致实际付款期限与平均付款期的偏离；生产风险是指由于信息、能源、技术及人员的变动而导致生产工艺流程的变化，以及由于库存不足所导致的停工待料或销售迟滞的可能；存货变现风险是指由于产品市场变动而导致产品销售受阻的可能；应收账款变现风险是指由于赊销业务过多导致应收账款管理成本增大的可能性，以及由于赊销政策的改变导致实际回收期与预期回收的偏离等。
4.存货管理风险
企业保持一定量的存货对于其进行正常生产来说是至关重要的，但如何确定最优库存量是一个比较棘手的问题，存货太多会导致产品积压，占用企业资金，风险较高；存货太少又可能导致原料供应不及时，影响企业的正常生产，严重时可能造成对客户的违约，影响企业的信誉。
5.流动性风险
流动性风险是指企业资产不能正常和确定性地转移现金或企业债务和付现责任不能正常履行的可能性。从这个意义上来说，可以把企业的流动性风险从企业的变现力和偿付能力两方面分析与评价。由于企业支付能力和偿债能力发生的问题，称为现金不足及现金不能清偿风险。由于企业资产不能确定性地转移为现金而发生的问题则称为变现力风险。
企业财务风险的成因
企业财务风险产生的原因很多，既有企业外部的原因，也有企业自身的原因，而且不同的财务风险形成的具体原因也不尽相同。企业产生财务风险的一般原因有以下几点：
1.企业财务管理宏观环境的复杂性是企业产生财务风险的外部原因。企业财务管理的宏观环境复杂多变，而企业管理系统不能适应复杂多变的宏观环境。财务管理的宏观环境包括经济环境、法律环境、市场环境、社会文化环境、资源环境等因素，这些因素存在企业之外，但对企业财务管理产生重大的影响。
2.企业财务管理人员对财务风险的客观性认识不足。财务风险是客观存在的，只要有财务活动，就必然存在着财务风险。然而在现实工作中，许多企业的财务管理人员缺乏风险意识。风险意识的淡薄是财务风险产生的重要原因之一。
3.财务决策缺乏科学性导致决策失误。财务决策失误是产生财务风险的又一主要原因。避免财务决策失误的前提是财务决策的科学化。
4.企业内部财务关系不明。这是企业产生财务风险的又一重要原因，企业与内部各部门之间及企业与上级企业之间，在资金管理及使用、利益分配等方面存在权责不明、管理不力的现象，造成资金使用效率低下，资金流失严重，资金的安全性、完整性无法得到保证。这主要存在于一些上市公司的财务关系中，很多集团公司母公司与子公司的财务关系十分混乱，资金使用没有有效的监督与控制。
化解财务风险的主要措施
企业财务风险是客观存在的，因此安全消除财务风险是不可能的，也是不现实的。对于企业财务风险，只能采取尽可能的措施，将其影响降低到最低的程度。
1.化解筹资风险的主要措施：
当企业的经营业务发生资金不足的困难时，可以采取发行股票、发行债券或银行借款等方式来筹集所需资本。
2.化解投资风险的主要措施：
从风险防范的角度来看，投资风险主要应该通过控制投资期限、投资品种来降低。一般来说，投资期越长，风险就大，因此企业应该尽量选择短期投资。而在进行证券投资的时候，应该采取分散投资的策略，选择若干种股票组成投资组合，通过组合中风险的相互抵消来降低风险。在对股票投资进行风险分析中，可以采用β系数的分析方法或资本资产定价模型来确定不同证券组合的风险。β系数小于1，说明它的风险小于整个市场的平均风险，因而是风险较小的投资对象。
3.化解汇率风险的主要措施：
（1）选择恰当合同货币。在有关对外贸易和借贷等经济交易中，选择何种货币作为计价货币直接关系到交易主体是否将承担汇率风险。为了避免汇率风险，企业应该争取使用本国货币作为合同货币，在出品、资本输出时使用硬通货，而在进口、资本输入时使用软通货。同时在合同中加列保值条款等措施。
（2）通过在金融市场进行保值操作。主要方法有现汇交易、期货交易、期汇交易、期权交易、借款与投资、利率—货币互换、外币票据贴现等。
（3）对于经济主体在资产负债表会计处理过程中产生的折算风险，一般是实行资产负债表保值来化解。这种方法要求在资产负债表上以各种功能货币表示的受险资产与受险负债的数额相等，从而使其折算风险头寸为零，只有这样，汇率变动才不致带来折算上的损失。
（4）经营多样化。即在国际范围内分散其销售、生产地及原材料来源地，通过国际经营的多样化，当汇率出现变化时，管理部门可以通过比较不同地区生产、销售和成本的变化趋利避害，增加在汇率变化有利的分支机构的生产，而减少汇率变化不利的分支机构的生产。
（5）财务多样化。即在多个金融市场以多种货币寻求资金的来源和资金去向，实行筹资多样化和投资多样化，这样在有的外币贬值，有的外币升值的情况下，公司就可以使绝大部分的外汇风险相互抵消，从而达到防范风险的目的。
4.化解流动性风险的主要措施：
企业的流动性较强的资产主要包括现金、存货、应收账款等项目。防范流动性风险的目的是在保持资产流动性的前提下，实现利益的最大化。因此应该确定最优的现金持有量、最佳的库存量以及加快应收账款的回收等。我们都很清楚持有现金有一个时间成本的问题，手中持有现金过多，显然会由于较高的资金占用而失去其他的获利机会，而持有现金太少，又会面临资金不能满足流动性需要的风险。因此企业应该确定一个最优的现金持有量，从而在防范流动性风险的前提下实现利益的最大化。
5.化解经营风险的主要措施：
在其他因素不变的情况下，市场对企业产品的需求越稳定，企业未来的经营收益就越确定，经营风险也就越小。因此企业在确定生产何种产品时，应先对产品市场做好调研，要生产适销对路的产品，销售价格是产品销售收入的决定因素之一，销售价格越稳定，销售收入就越稳定，企业未来的经营收益就越稳定，经营风险也就越小。
The Infrared Technology as the humanity knew that the nature, the exploration natural one kind of new modern tool, has been applied generally by various countries in the biology, the medicine, the geoscience and so on scientific field as well as the military reconnaissance aspect. But is very complex as a result of the goal infrared radiation, the factor are many, the infrared hot image's clarity is inferior to the visible image far, but people in use infrared hot chart analysis question time, hoped frequently simultaneously sees the visible light information and the infrared information. As the computer vision domain and an image understanding's important technology, the image fusion simultaneously observed the infrared hot information and the visible light information for the people have provided an effective method. This article research mainly take the infrared imagery and the visible light image as the information processing goal, through will carry on the contrastive analysis to each image fusion processing method, will summarize an effect good method, will then use with the matlab procere to realize these methods and to carry on the comparison again to the fusion effect. this article first introced the image fusion engineering research background and the domestic and foreign research tendency. Then introced the image fusion's basic concept, the level, have made the comparison to each level's fusion. Then introced the image fusion's Pyramid algorithm, and has carried on the analysis, the comparison to these algorithms, finally the matlab procere has realized these methods. as a result of the wavelet transformation in the information analysis and the information processing domain's good performance, this article used the great length to introce that the wavelet the knowledge, realized the image fusion with the fusion effect good small wave packet's method, through used the objective indicator the appraisal to prove based on the small wave packet's fusion was one very good fusion method. key word: Image fusion, wavelet transformation Pyramid algorithm, multi-resolution analysis, fusion rule, fusion appraisal
从分析财务风险入手，阐述其含义、特征以及种类等内容；在此基础上对财务风险产生的原因进行深入细致的分析研究，分析总结出财务风险产生的内因和外因诸方面；从而提出树立风险意识，建立有效的风险防范机制；建立和完善财务管理系统，以适应财务管理环境变化；建立财务风险预警机制，加强财务危机管理；提高财务决策的科学化水平，防止因决策失误而产生的财务风险；通过防范内部制度，建立约束机制来控制和防范财务风险五个方面的财务风险防范措施以及自我保险、多元化风险控制、风险转移、风险回避、风险降低五种技术方法。只有控制防范和化解企业财务风险，才能确保企业在激烈的市场竞争中立于不败之地。
财务风险的成因
（一）外部原因
1、国家政策的变化带来的融资风险。一般而言，由于中小企业生产经营不稳定。一国经济或金融政策的变化，都有可能对中小企业生产经营、市场环境和融资形式产生一定的影响。从2007 年开始，我国加大了对宏观经济的调控力度，央行第四次提高存款准备金率，尤其是实行差额准备金制度使直接面向中小企业服务的中小商业银行信贷收紧，中小企业的资金供给首先受阻，融资风险徒增不少，中小企业也因无法得到急需资金而被迫停产或收缩经营规模。2、银行融资渠道不流畅造成的融资风险。企业资金来源无非是自有资金和对外融资两种方式。在各种融资方式中，银行信贷又是重要的资金来源，但是银行在国家金融政策以及自身体制不健全等情况的影响下，普遍对中小企业贷款积极性不高，使其贷款难度加大，增加了企业的财务风险。
（二）内部原因1、盲目扩张投资规模。有相当一部分的中小企业在条件不成熟的情况下，仅凭经验判断片面追求公司外延的扩大，忽略了公司内涵和核心竞争力，造成投资时资金的重大浪费。2、投资决策失误。对企业来说，正确的产业选择是生存发展的战略起点。但一些企业在选择产业过程中，往往忽视了“产业选择是一个动态过程”的观念，不能敏锐地把握产业演变的趋势和方向。3、投资合作伙伴选择不当。企业在做出投资决策时，一定要充分考虑合作伙伴的资质、信誉，并应具备承担相应风险能力。4、诚信不足。中小企业信用不足是一个普遍现象。因此，银行要向中小企业提供贷款或投资人要向中小企业进行投资就不得不加大人力资源的投入以提高信息的收集和质量分析。这一方面加大了银行或投资人的贷款和投资成本。另一方面也给中小企业的融资带来困难。能否融通到资金，能融通到多少资金，中小企业的融资存在很大的不确性。
1 the meaning of financial risk
Ye at "small and medium-sized financial risk assessment and control of research" that the financial risk is the possibility of corporate insolvency and shareholders, the proceeds of uncertainty, it is difficult because of enterprise funds, to adopt a different mode of financing brought about by risk.
Starting from the analysis of financial risk on its meaning, characteristics and types of content; at this based on the causes of the financial risk to conct in-depth analysis and detailed research, analysis concludes that the financial risks arising from internal factors and external aspects; in turn, establish a risk awareness, the establishment of an effective risk prevention mechanism; set up and improve the financial management system to meet the financial management of environmental change; set up the financial risk early warning mechanism, strengthen the financial crisis management; improve the scientific level of financial decision-making to prevent e to poor decisions arising from the financial risk; through internal systems to prevent the establishment of binding mechanisms to control and guard against financial risk in five areas of financial risk prevention measures as well as self-insurance, diversification of risk control, risk transfer, risk averse, risk recing the five techniques. Only controlled enterprises to guard against and defuse financial risks, in order to ensure that enterprises in the fierce competition in the market in an invincible position.
The causes of the financial risks
(A) external causes
1, the national policy changes brought about by the financing risk. Generally speaking, small and medium-sized proction and operation because of instability. A country's economy or monetary policy changes, there may be small and medium-sized proction and management, market conditions and financing forms have a certain impact. Beginning in 2007, our country has increased the intensity of macroeconomic regulation and control, the central bank to raise the fourth time the deposit reserve ratio, in particular, are ready to implement the difference between a direct deposit system to make small and medium-sized service-oriented small and medium-sized commercial banks to tighten credit, SMEs First of all, the capital supply disruption, the risk of inviting a lot of financing, SMEs also in urgent need of funds can not be forced to stop proction or the scale of downsizing. 2, bank financing channels for non-financial risks caused by fluid. Corporate sources of funds are nothing more than its own funds and external financing in two ways. In various modes of financing, the bank credit is also an important source of funds, but banks in the country's financial policies as well as their own sound system is not under the influence of such circumstances, the general enthusiasm for SME lending is not high, their loans more difficult to increase the the enterprise's financial risk.
(B) internal factors one, blind expansion of investment scale. There is a considerable number of conditions are not ripe for the SMEs in the circumstances, only the experience of one-sided pursuit of companies to determine the expansion of the extension, ignore the company's content and core competitiveness, resulting in a major capital investment wasted. 2, the investment decision-making errors. For business, the correct selection of instries are the starting point for the survival and development strategy. However, some instrial enterprises in the selection process, the often overlooked "instry is a dynamic selection process" concept, should not a keen grasp of instry trends and direction of evolution. 3, improper selection of investment partners. Enterprises to make investment decisions, we must give full consideration to qualified partners, reputation, and should have to bear the corresponding risks. 4, less than honest. Lack of SME credit is a common situation. Therefore, small and medium-sized banks to provide loans or investments to small and medium-sized people had to step up investment on human resources in order to improve the quality of information collection and analysis. This respect has increased the investment bank or person lending and investment costs. On the other hand also give small and medium enterprises financing difficult. Ability to finance capital, to finance the number of funds, the financing of SMEs exist great uncertainties.
㈩ 我需要一篇外文文献及翻译！关于企业财务风险防范的内容！要求字数达标、有外国作者的名字和出处
1 the meaning of financial risk
Ye at "small and medium-sized financial risk assessment and control of research" that the financial risk is the possibility of corporate insolvency and shareholders, the proceeds of uncertainty, it is difficult because of enterprise funds, to adopt a different mode of financing brought about by risk.
Starting from the analysis of financial risk on its meaning, characteristics and types of content; at this based on the causes of the financial risk to conct in-depth analysis and detailed research, analysis concludes that the financial risks arising from internal factors and external aspects; in turn, establish a risk awareness, the establishment of an effective risk prevention mechanism; set up and improve the financial management system to meet the financial management of environmental change; set up the financial risk early warning mechanism, strengthen the financial crisis management; improve the scientific level of financial decision-making to prevent e to poor decisions arising from the financial risk; through internal systems to prevent the establishment of binding mechanisms to control and guard against financial risk in five areas of financial risk prevention measures as well as self-insurance, diversification of risk control, risk transfer, risk averse, risk recing the five techniques. Only controlled enterprises to guard against and defuse financial risks, in order to ensure that enterprises in the fierce competition in the market in an invincible position.
The causes of the financial risks
(A) external causes
1, the national policy changes brought about by the financing risk. Generally speaking, small and medium-sized proction and operation because of instability. A country's economy or monetary policy changes, there may be small and medium-sized proction and management, market conditions and financing forms have a certain impact. Beginning in 2007, our country has increased the intensity of macroeconomic regulation and control, the central bank to raise the fourth time the deposit reserve ratio, in particular, are ready to implement the difference between a direct deposit system to make small and medium-sized service-oriented small and medium-sized commercial banks to tighten credit, SMEs First of all, the capital supply disruption, the risk of inviting a lot of financing, SMEs also in urgent need of funds can not be forced to stop proction or the scale of downsizing. 2, bank financing channels for non-financial risks caused by fluid. Corporate sources of funds are nothing more than its own funds and external financing in two ways. In various modes of financing, the bank credit is also an important source of funds, but banks in the country's financial policies as well as their own sound system is not under the influence of such circumstances, the general enthusiasm for SME lending is not high, their loans more difficult to increase the the enterprise's financial risk.
(B) internal factors one, blind expansion of investment scale. There is a considerable number of conditions are not ripe for the SMEs in the circumstances, only the experience of one-sided pursuit of companies to determine the expansion of the extension, ignore the company's content and core competitiveness, resulting in a major capital investment wasted. 2, the investment decision-making errors. For business, the correct selection of instries are the starting point for the survival and development strategy. However, some instrial enterprises in the selection process, the often overlooked "instry is a dynamic selection process" concept, should not a keen grasp of instry trends and direction of evolution. 3, improper selection of investment partners. Enterprises to make investment decisions, we must give full consideration to qualified partners, reputation, and should have to bear the corresponding risks. 4, less than honest. Lack of SME credit is a common situation. Therefore, small and medium-sized banks to provide loans or investments to small and medium-sized people had to step up investment on human resources in order to improve the quality of information collection and analysis. This respect has increased the investment bank or person lending and investment costs. On the other hand also give small and medium enterprises financing difficult. Ability to finance capital, to finance the number of funds, the financing of SMEs exist great uncertainties.